1 Introduction

Preamble

The following work was presented at the 12^th ABLOS Conference, 7–8 October 2025, Doha, Qatar in the oral session UNCLOS: fit for purpose in modern times.

Nigeria is endowed with vast maritime assets that confer on its undeniable maritime credentials within Africa. Bordered by the Atlantic Ocean along the Gulf of Guinea, the nation’s maritime environment defines a sovereign territory of about 5,040 square nm, and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of about 84,000 square nm and an extended Continental Shelf of about 147,000 square nm which is about one third of the total land mass of Nigeria. Additionally, the nation is blessed with the 9^th largest delta in the world, covering almost 20,000 square nm and transverse numerous internal navigable rivers. Its inland waterways span over 10,000 kilometres, with about 3,000 kilometres navigable, linking coastal ports to major inland trade hubs. Nigeria’s maritime environment is home to huge reserves of living and nonliving natural resources such as fish, shrimps, oil and gas as well as manganese noodles. This rich endowment offers enormous opportunities across diverse sectors, including shipping and maritime transport, fisheries and aquaculture, coastal and cruise tourism, marine biotechnology, offshore renewable energy, and seabed mineral exploration.

Despite these maritime assets, historically exploitation of Nigeria’s ocean resources has been sub-optimal, hindered by governance deficits, weak institutional coordination, and limited investment in maritime infrastructure, technologies, data base, human capital, marine science and modern methodologies. Over the years, the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) has developed diverse laws, policies and strategies to improve sea-use such as the Sea Fisheries Act (1992), Cabotage Act (2003), and Merchant Shipping Act (2007), NIMASA Act 2007, and the National Maritime Transport Policy 2021. It has also continuously ratified international maritime conventions and protocols that bring the nation to speed in the maritime world (Edward, 2023). While these instruments sought to regulate discrete aspects of the maritime sector, they lacked needed cohesion to drive sustainable sea- use. Indeed, without intention, some of these instruments resulted in overlapping mandates and unhelpful inter-agency competition, resource conflicts, as well as missed opportunities for economic diversification and environmental stewardship.

Recognizing these structural gaps and policy inconsistencies, the FGN has had a longstanding aspiration to produce a comprehensive maritime policy and strategy to drive sea-use in furtherance of maritime security and development objectives. This aspiration resulted in the National Maritime Strategy (NMS) of 2023 and lately the National Policy on Marines and Blue Economy (NPMBE) of 2025 which speaks directly to the strategic exploitation of the blue economy. The attainment of the blue economy objectives requires an aggressive and coordinated policy implementation framework. Additionally, the implementation of the blue economy policies requires concerted and integrated factor inputs including deliberate ocean governance approaches. The pertinent questions are: what is the status of blue economy policy implementation in Nigeria; and what is the state of overall ocean governance in Nigeria in furtherance of the blue economy objectives?

2 Basic concepts

The primary instinct here is to present the basic concepts of the three variables in the paper, namely blue economy, ocean governance, and Policy Implementation. This is to create clarity, aid understanding, ensure consistency, and promote essential values. These variables are: blue economy, ocean governance and policy implementation.

Blue economy. The import of blue economy varies across institutions and jurisdictions. While the European Union (EU) views it as a sectoral economic space, Small Island Developing States (SIDS) focus on using the blue economy to support Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Argueta, 2024). These differences reflect a broader tension between resource exploitation and ecosystem stewardship. However, the World Bank, defines blue economy as “the sustainable use of ocean, sea, and coastal resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs, while preserving the health of ocean ecosystems” (World Bank, 2017). In this paper, the blue economy is a policy-driven framework that seeks to harness ocean and coastal resources to drive sustainable economic growth, promote social inclusion, and safeguard marine ecosystems. It encompasses diverse ocean-related sectors such as fisheries and aquaculture, shipping and port services, marine bio-technology, tourism, renewable energy, and seabed exploration and mapping. Significantly, implementation of blue economy is aided by deliberate ocean and maritime governance, among other critical inputs.

Ocean governance. Ocean governance refers to the collective system of legal frameworks, institutional mechanisms, policies, norms, and decision- making processes that guide and regulate human interaction with the ocean. According to the United Nations, “it involves the regulation and administration of the ocean’s uses, aiming to maintain biodiversity, mitigate climate change impacts, and promote sustainable livelihoods” (UNEP, n.d.). In this paper, ocean governance is conceived as the enabling architecture of laws and regulations, specialized institutions and mechanisms as well as constructive stakeholder engagements that ensure ocean resources are sustainably managed, equitably shared, and protected for future generations. It provides the foundation and amenable operational environment for effective implementation of blue economy policies.

Policy implementation. Policy implementation is viewed within the framework of the recursive policy circle as enunciated by Lasswell (1956) that comprises key elements such as agenda setting; policy formulation; decision making; implementation; Performance Measurement and Evaluation (PME); and lastly, feedback and review. Policy implementation is the structured process of interaction between the goalsetting and actions geared towards achieving them. The imperatives of policy implementation are to effectively translate policy goals to concrete action through clear objectives, stakeholder engagements, robust planning, effective resource allocation, strong institutional capacity and continuous adaptation to changing contexts. The standard rubric for policy implementation includes: availability of relevant policy statements; implied/express tasks therefrom; requisite structure for implementation; detailed requirements, which may include financial, material, human capacity, additional regulations and stakeholder networks, mechanisms for application of policy provision and policy PME.

3 The practice of blue economy amongst nations

Several regional blocks, groups of nations and individual nations have developed comprehensive policies/strategies that provide clear aspirations, specific objectives, institutional coordination frameworks, and funding mechanisms for the blue economy.

European Union (EU). The EU launched its Blue Growth Strategy in 2012, integrating ocean sectors such as renewable energy, aquaculture, coastal tourism, and marine biotechnology under a unified policy platform. The EU model is anchored on the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which mandates ecosystem-based management of marine waters.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The SIDS such as Seychelles and Mauritius have become global frontrunners, embedding environmental sustainability at the core of their blue economy policies. Mauritius for example developed an Ocean Economy Roadmap in 2012, that is envisioned to transform the country into a global maritime and blue economy hub by developing sectors such as fisheries, maritime transport, marine tourism, renewable ocean energy, and marine biotechnology while ensuring sustainability in the management of ocean resources (Cervigni & Scandizzo, 2017). Seychelles similarly launched a blue economy roadmap in 2018 that linked Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) with innovative financing mechanisms, such as blue bonds and debt-for-nature swaps, to fund marine conservation and fisheries management Commonwealth Secretariat, 2018).

Asian Maritime Nations (AMN). The AMN have embraced ambitious blue economy agenda. For instance, China’s blue economy development plan (2012) and Indonesia’s ocean policy (2017) both prioritize marine industrialization, port infrastructure, fisheries modernization, and ocean technology development. These approaches emphasize strong state-led coordination, significant investment in marine science and technology, and extensive public-private partnerships.

African Union. At the continental level, the African Union provides a broad policy framework to foster increased wealth creation from Africa’s oceans and seas by developing sustainable thriving blue economy in a secure and environmentally sustainable manner. The 2050 African Integrated Maritime Strategy (AU, 2012) is designed to address Africa’s maritime challenges and harness the potentials of its blue economy. It encourages other sub-regional blocks to draw down from its basic philosophy, principles and objectives.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS launched the ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy (EIMS) in 2014. The EIMS was aimed at promoting a prosperous, safe, and peaceful ECOWAS Maritime Domain (EMD) for all its people that will allow environmentally sustainable development and maritime wealth creation based on efficient management and good governance.

Individual nations. Based on this supra-national guidance, several African nations have implemented blue economy policy frameworks. Some of these are as follows:

• Kenya launched its blue economy implementation committee in 2018 and has integrated ocean-based sectors into national development plans, emphasizing port development, fisheries, and maritime safety.
• South Africa implemented Operation Phakisa: Oceans Economy in 2014, which sets measurable targets for job creation and GDP contribution from marine sectors while embedding ecosystem protective measures.
• Established a Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources with an explicit mandate to coordinate blue economy sectors, underpinned by comprehensive marine ecosystem assessments.

Common implementation features and lessons. There are some common features and lessons drawn from the blue economy experiences of regional blocks and nations discussed above. These include the following:

• High-level political anchoring: blue economy policies are located within central national development plans, ensuring sustained political attention and budgetary commitment.
• Integrated ocean governance structures: Dedicated inter- ministerial coordinating bodies or agencies oversee implementation, avoiding institutional fragmentation.
• Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is widely used to balance competing uses of marine space such as fishing, shipping, conservation, and energy, while reducing conflicts.
• Robust data and monitoring systems: Investment in hydrographic, oceanographic, and geospatial data systems supports evidence-based decision-making.
• Innovative financing: Blue bonds, climate funds, and public-private partnerships mobilize capital for maritime infrastructure and conservation.
• Stakeholder inclusion: Community participation and public-private collaboration increase legitimacy, acceptability and sustainability of initiatives.

4 Overview of blue economy policy development in Nigeria

Drawing from longstanding aspiration for a policy instrument to promote effective sea use and the blue economy as well as international stimulus, Nigeria set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee to develop a comprehensive National Maritime Strategy (NMS). The Ministries involved were: Transport (MoT), Defence (MoD), Justice (MoJ), Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD), Environment (MoE), Communications and Digital Economy (MoCDE), Foreign Affairs (MoFA), and Internal Affairs (MoIA) as well as Departments/Agencies such as Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation Limited (NNPCL), Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA), Nigeria Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA), Shippers Council of Nigeria (SCN), Department of Fisheries (DoF), Nigerian Navy (NN), and Nigeria Police Force (NPF).

The NMS was signed in 2022 and launched by President Muhammadu Buhari GCFR in May 2023. The vision of NMS 2022 is “to achieve Nigeria’s economic prosperity, growth and development through the sustainable use of the nation’s maritime resources in a safe and secure environment”. The core principles were: protection of strategic maritime interest; promotion of economic wellbeing; promotion of social freedoms; promotion of environmental sustainability; promotion of global citizenship; and the need for both domestic and international collaborations.

The six pillars of NMS 2022 were:

1. To promote an amenable legal and regulatory framework in Nigeria’s maritime environment.
2. To promote effective Ocean and Maritime Governance in Nigeria.
3. To promote the development of a blue economy in Nigeria.
4. To promote environmental sustainability in Nigeria’s maritime environment.
5. To promote effective Communication and Information Technology system in Nigeria’s maritime environment.
6. To promote a viable security and defence system in Nigeria’s maritime environment.

NMS 2022 represents a multi-thematic and multistakeholder effort to promote maritime economic prosperity, growth and development in a safe, and secure environment in a sustainable manner. Significantly, it included an Implementation Plan that recognized diverse but mutually reinforcing roles of stakeholders. For instance, the MoJ was to develop Pillar 1 on legal/regulatory framework; the MoT was to develop Pillar 2 on ocean/maritime governance; NIMASA was to develop Pillar 3 on blue economy; and NN was to develop Pillar 6 on security.

After the democratic transition in 2023, the government of President Bola Ahmed Tinubu GCFR prioritized the blue economy and established a full-fledged Ministry of Marines and Blue Economy (MoMBE). It then commenced the development of a capstone national policy on marines and blue economy, which was approved in 2025. The policy has a vision to “make Nigeria a global leader in sustainable marine and blue economy practices” and its Mission is “to sustainably harness Nigeria’s rich marine and coastal resources, fostering economic growth and development while ensuring the conservation of our marine ecosystems”. The NPMBE promotes core functions of the blue economy in the areas of: Maritime Trade and Transportation (including port infrastructure and services, shipbuilding and repairs as well as maritime safety and security); Fisheries and Aquaculture; Marine Resources and Industries; Energy and Environmental Sustainability; Blue Tourism and Recreation as well as Maritime Education and Training.

5 Implementing blue economy in Nigeria

Recognising that the NPMBE is a major turning point in sea-use in Nigeria, the FGN has made concerted efforts to implement the blue economy policy in various ways. These are as follows:

Regulations. Establishment of a 4-year Policy Implementation Plan that spans from 2023 to 2027, based on 4 strategic actions. These are: strengthening blue governance; enhancing port infrastructure; promoting blue economy investments; and transforming port operations.

Structure. A key requirement of blue economy policy implementation is the establishment of a viable implementation structure. In the Policy, the President is the overall head of the blue economy initiative. He shall be assisted by the Policy Advisory Council (PAC) in the discharge of the objectives of the policy. The PAC shall be chaired by the Honourable Minister of Marines and blue economy and have representatives of participating MDAs, private sector and development partners as members. At the core of the implementation is the Policy Implementation Steering Committee (PISC) which will receive countrywide guidance from a Sub-national Coordination Committee (SNCC). The PISC is to be chaired by the Permanent Secretary of the FMMBE, with membership from the Ministry and external consultants. These entities constitute the implementation structures for the NPMBE.

Mechanisms. In furtherance of the blue economy, the FGN has lately initiated some critical measures. These include the digitalization of port systems and the introduction of a centralized platform for maritime single window. These measures are expected to reduce bottlenecks, improve transparency and efficiency, reduce cost of doing business, facilitate trade and boost economic growth.

Financing and indigenous capacity development. Recognizing that local operators struggle with funding for vessel acquisition; the implementation plan prioritizes financing schemes such as the Cabotage Vessel Financing Fund (CVFF) in furtherance of one of the key objectives of the Cabotage Act 2003. Indeed, the disbursement of the first tranche of CVFF was expected to commence in August 2025. The plan also stresses human capital development through specialized training, research partnerships, and seafarer capacity enhancement.

Stakeholder collaboration and public-private partnerships. The MMBE has lately emphasized the importance of collaboration among government agencies, private investors, coastal communities, and academia in furtherance of blue economy policy implementation. In particular, Private Public Partnerships (PPPs) are seen as vital in financing port infrastructure, offshore energy, and environmental protection projects.

Sustainability and environmental protection. The blueprint for blue economy implementation incorporates measures for marine spatial planning, biodiversity conservation, and pollution control. Emphasis is placed on balancing economic exploitation with ecological sustainability, aligning Nigeria with the UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water).

6 Implementing ocean governance in Nigeria

Ocean governance in Nigeria is motivated by the need to make better use of knowledge, skills, aptitudes and available resources to promote economy efficiency and initiate better priority setting in support of blue economy. Some of these initiatives in ocean governance include, maritime governance and institutions, maritime domain awareness, role of hydrography, marine spatial planning.

Maritime Governance and Institutions. In furtherance of ocean governance, the FGN has promoted the delineation of maritime governance institutions under various ministries such as the Ministries of Marine and Blue Economy, Defence, Finance and Budget Planning. Typical examples of such maritime governance institutions are NIMASA, NPA, NIWA, NN, National Hydrographic Agency (NHA) and Nigerian Customs Service (NCS) among others. Still on maritime governance, the FGN is actively promoting national and regional maritime collaborations to achieve maritime safety and security. In particular, it is actively strengthening maritime partnerships in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG) and promoting joint exploration of maritime resources in the GoG in furtherance of the blue economy.

Maritime domain awareness. To promote Nigeria’s Maritime Domain Awareness, the NN already operates the Falcon Eye, a maritime surveillance system used to monitor and protect the nation’s EEZ and territorial waters. In addition to the Falcon Eye, the FGN has caused the activation of other enhanced surveillance systems such as the Automatic Identification System (AIS), Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) and satellite monitoring. These technologies are expected to improve safety, reduce insurance premiums, and combat insecurity such as Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing and piracy in furtherance of the blue economy.

Role of hydrography. The universal role of hydrography in ocean governance is aptly captured by the exploits of the National Hydrographic Agency (NHA) in Nigeria. Established by the NHA Act 2021, the NHA is now the foremost hydrographic agency in Nigeria. It has taken over the erstwhile responsibilities of the NN Hydrographic Office as the sole authority for the conduct of hydrographic surveys and production of nautical charts in Nigeria. Driven by the mantra of the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) that “there can be no sustainable use of the oceans without adequate knowledge of the seas”, the NHA has conducted numerous hydrographic surveys across Nigeria and adjoining waters resulting in the production of globally available paper and electronic nautical charts. Clearly, the NHA promotes navigational safety, environmental stewardship, and maritime sustainability in furtherance of ocean governance and the blue economy objectives of the nation.

Marine Spatial Planning. Nigeria has initiated MSP primarily through pilot projects in economically and environmentally sensitive coastal areas such as Lagos and Niger Delta. These MSP initiatives employ hydrographic and geospatial data supplied by the NHA to identify and delimit marine zones for various uses, including commercial shipping lanes, fishing grounds, oil and gas exploration areas, conservation zones and tourism sites. The planning process integrates stakeholder consultations spanning local communities, industry actors, and governmental entities to enhance broad- based ownership.

7 Challenges and prospects of blue economy and ocean governance in Nigeria challenges

Some challenges faced by investors, stakeholders and key players in the Nigerian blue economy sector include the following:

Need for inter-agency coordination. A key issue and seemingly obvious challenge in blue economy implementation is the manifest need for coordinating diverse (and sometimes disparate) activities of several institutions in the maritime environment. For instance, critical functions such as maritime safety and security, and both licensing and revenue collection are currently within the purview of multiple institutions. While admitting the role of the FGN, in recent times, to promote crosscutting communications, a lot more still needs to be done, to ensure understanding of institutional differences, effective collaboration, inclusivity and working partnerships.

Human capacity gaps. Nigeria’s blue economy comprise diverse sectors such as fisheries, aquaculture, marine transport, hydrography, offshore oil and gas exploration and coastal tourism. The sustainable development of these sectors hinges not only on technological advancement but also on the human capital that ordinarily drives innovation, sustained industrial practices/culture and foster inclusive growth. Current human capacity gaps are due to factors such as lopsided education curriculum, and inadequate training infrastructure. Significantly, there is also a disconnect between training and practice associated with the absence of a designated national carrier. Consequently, the main goals of the Cabotage Act 2003 to reserve domestic shipping for Nigerian-flagged, owned and crewed vessels are not being met at the expense of the blue economy

Environmental degradation. The Nigerian maritime environment suffers enormous degradation arising from several factors. These include institutional weaknesses associated with inadequate coordination between regulatory bodies and stakeholders; as well as ineffectual implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act of 1992 associated with inadequate monitoring and penalties for violation. The situation creates enormous social, economic, technical and environmental challenges for blue economy investors.

Data sharing challenges. The absence of a comprehensive framework for data-sharing significantly limits integrated marine management capabilities in Nigeria. In this regard, agencies such as NIMASA, NIWA, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) and NHA collect and maintain crucial marine data according to their specific mandates. However, despite law empowering the NHA as the sole depository of such data in Nigeria, inter-agency rivalry, sharing this information with other relevant agencies or stakeholders like local fishing communities or oil and gas companies becomes a major hurdle.

Prospects. Despite the challenges impeding the optimization of blue economy and ocean governance, there are credible prospects that this initiative will succeed in Nigeria. This optimism stems from the following factors:

Political will and priority. For the first time in Nigerian history, the FGN is showing strong political will in promoting optimal sea-use particularly blue economy imperatives. In furtherance of this high-level political anchoring, the FGN has prioritized and shown genuine commitment to implement its blue economy agenda.

International instruments. Various international instruments and agenda point to the drawdown of blue economy initiatives by developing nations including Nigeria. These drives include the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal Number 14 (SDG 14 on Life below Water), and the impetus by the World Bank, and World Economic Forum. There are also the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) initiatives on safe, secure and environmentally sound shipping, as well as the Paris Agreement on environmental protection and marine protected areas among others.

Decade of Ocean Science. The Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021 – 2030 declared by the United Nations could propel a renewed focus on maritime data science including hydrography in furtherance of ocean governance and blue economy.

Regional IC-ENC office. In June 2025, NHA received the approval of the International Centre for Electronic Nautical Charts (IC- ENC) to establish the West African Regional Office and Training Centre in Nigeria. This status can boost Nigeria’s blue economy credentials. In particular, it can enhance maritime safety, leading to reduced marine insurance premiums, and increased port throughput; stimulate private-sector investments, and create direct and indirect employment in marine technologies, chart production, vessel operations, and training services.

African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). The AfCFTA promises a single African market for 55 countries with real prospects for the blue economy; intra-African trade; job creation; economic development; and poverty reduction.

International maritime security. Buoyed by the realities of the Regional Security Complex Theory, and expected advantages of common security approaches, there are genuine prospects that blue economy in Nigeria could benefit from improved regional maritime security.

8 Strategies for improving blue economy implementation in Nigeria

The strategic outlook for Nigeria illustrates both the challenges and huge promise of transitioning to sustainable blue economy. In view of the diversities inherent in the blue economy, it is advised to apply a multi-layered umbrella strategy. This will allow a broad framework that guides and unifies sub-thematic initiatives and actions under a common vision and purpose. At the same time, it will allow the resolution of specific challenges as articulated below.

Inter-agency coordination. The key to ensuring understanding of institutional differences, effective collaboration, and working partnerships between diverse maritime organisations would be to adopt an inclusive principle of lex specialis in role implementation of maritime agencies/organisations. This principle mandates that a rule governing specific subject matter overrides a rule governing general matters. It will facilitate sub-sectoral precedence and lead of specific organisations based on their statutes, competences, experience, corporate capacity and overall resource endowments. This is to be fastened together by the collectivism which mandates part of a whole system to act in furtherance of the collective objectives rather than in pursuit of only informed self-interest. Collaboration must also involve communities and the public and the private sector to increase legitimacy, acceptability and sustainability of initiatives.

Human capacity development. Human capacity development in the blue economy must be viewed as a strategic imperative. In the short term, the MMBE must intentionally and aggressively facilitate local and foreign training of key professionals in specific sub-thematic areas of the blue economy. In the medium term, the MMBE and other maritime agencies must facilitate the development of special training institutions and platforms in Nigeria to drive critical mass of Knowledge, Skills and Aptitudes (KSAs) in blue economy management. This is also to include the localization of foreign based institutions and organisations. A typical example here is the approved West African Regional Office and Training Centre of the IC-ENC in Nigeria. In the long term, there must be a deliberate effort to designate or establish a national carrier to provide a readily available platform for training and development of industry ready seafarers.

Environmental protection and enforcement. Going forward, and to emplace robust environmental preparedness and resilience, it is suggested that environmental management is undergirded by 2 core principles. These are the principles of user pays and polluter pays. The first mandates that users and beneficiaries pay for the use and potential running down of natural resources. The second mandates that polluters pay significant cost for degrading and polluting the maritime environment. These principles need to be embedded in national environmental management code as preventive measures to protect biodiversity, manage pollution and ensure environmental sustainability of the environment. They are to be applied alongside international conventions such as the MARPOL.

Effective data management. Going forward, the FGN need to embark on good investment in hydrographic, oceanographic, and geospatial data systems to support evidence-based decision-making. Indeed, the already existing legal or policy framework for mandatory repository of such geospatial data with the NHA should be implemented, in addition to effective data sharing amongst agencies and the archiving of such data for future ocean governance and blue economy.

9 Conclusion

Nigeria’s experience demonstrates both the promise and the challenges of transitioning from fragmented maritime policies to a coherent blue economy framework anchored on ocean governance. The establishment of the Ministry of Marine and Blue Economy and the adoption of the 2025–2034 national policy mark important milestones in this evolution. However, persistent gaps in institutional coordination, legal frameworks, data infrastructure, and enforcement capacity highlight that policy formulation alone is insufficient. Rather, effective implementation, guided by robust governance and supported by technological innovation, remains the central determinant of success.

At the global level, Nigeria’s case underscores a broader lessons for developing maritime nations. First is that sustainable blue economic growth depends on embedding ocean governance as the core principle for policy delivery. Secondly, integrated governance, inclusive stakeholder participation, and international cooperation provide the pathways to bridge the divide between aspiration and practice. If these elements are consolidated, Nigeria and other coastal states can transform their maritime endowments into engines of economic diversification, climate resilience, and long-term sustainability.

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